Signals Ahead

Signals Ahead is our premiere research product covering all aspects of the wireless industy, including such recurring topics as “The Mother of All Benchmarking Reports,” “The 5G Circus,” and “Chips and Salsa.” Full downloads are available via subscription or by individual purchase. Free previews of all issues are availble to registered users.

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5G: THE GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH!
March 22, 2021
SRG just completed its seventeenth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on 5G NR scheduler efficiency with DSS or 5G NR in a dedicated radio channel and how it compares with LTE scheduler efficiency. We tested Ericsson...
5G: THE GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH!
February 17, 2021
SRG just completed its sixteenth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on evaluating overall network performance and its impact on the user experience, based on ETSI TR 103 559. Testing took place in the Dallas metro area,...
RAN #90e 5G Standardization Update
January 2, 2021
SRG participated in the 3GPP RAN Plenary which took place in mid-December. In this report we provide an update on the 5G standardization process, including analysis and commentary on some of the study items and work items that we...
5G: THE GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH!
December 14, 2020
SRG just completed its fifteenth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on mmWave Fixed Wireless Access (FWA), based on testing we did with a high-power CPE in Verizon's networks in Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota. Highlights of the...
5G: THE GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH!
December 1, 2020
SRG just completed its fourteenth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS), based on Verizon's networks in Minneapolis (CRS-RM) and Oklahoma City (MBSFN), as well as AT&T's network in Plano, Texas (CRS-RM). Highlights of...
5G: THE GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH!
October 7, 2020
SRG just completed its thirteenth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on the T-Mobile Band n71 5G NR Standalone (SA) network and how it compares with the operator's 5G NR Non-Standalone (NSA) network. We tested in the...
5G: THE GREATEST SHOW ON EARTH!
September 1, 2020
SRG just completed its twelfth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on the AT&T Band n5 and Band n260 networks which support downlink and uplink PDCP split bearer combining. AT&T has 2x5 MHz of Band n5 in...
RAN#88e 5G Standardization Update
July 9, 2020
SRG just finished participating in RAN#88e from the comforts of our home office. As it stands now, all 3GPP activities through at least the end of the year will be done electronically. instead of face-to-face. Highlights of the Report include...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
June 11, 2020
SRG just completed its eleventh 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on the Verizon Wireless 5G NR millimeter wave (Band n257) network. Verizon currently uses a single 100 MHz channel for uplink data transmissions while downlink transmissions...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
April 16, 2020
SRG just completed its tenth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on T-Mobile's 5G NR network. In the market where we tested, T-Mobile is using a 10 MHz FDD carrier for 5G NR and an additional 5...
RAN#87e STANDARDIZATION UPDATE
March 26, 2020
SRG just finished participating in RAN 87e from the comforts of our home office. As it stands now, all 3GPP activities through at least June, including the next plenaries, will be done electronically. instead of face-to-face. Highlights of the Report...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
February 5, 2020
SRG just completed its ninth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on AT&T's 5G NR network, which is deployed as a 5 MHz FDD carrier in Band n5. We did the testing over two separate weekends in...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
January 6, 2020
SRG just completed its eighth 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on Verizon's 5G millimeter wave indoor network that it has deployed in US Bank Stadium, home of the Minnesota Vikings in downtown Minneapolis. For this study we...
RAN#86 STANDARDIZATION UPDATE
December 20, 2019
SRG just returned from Sitges, Spain where we attended the RAN#86 Plenary. During the four-day event the plenary "finalized" the study items and work items for Release 17, plus it discussed other important topics which impact the cellular industry. Highlights...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
November 6, 2019
SRG just completed its seventh 5G benchmark study, this time with a focus on Sprint's 5G network, which is deployed in Band 41, alongside 60 MHz of LTE in the same band. For this study we used two Samsung...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
September 9, 2019
SRG just completed its sixth 5G NR benchmark study, this time with a focus on energy efficiency. For this study we used a Galaxy S10 smartphone in the Verizon Wireless 5G NR (millimeter wave) and LTE networks located in...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
August 17, 2019
SRG conducted a benchmark study of the T-Mobile 5G NR network in New York City where the operator has deployed the technology at 28 GHz (Band n257) along with LAA in Band 46. Highlights of the Report include the following: Our...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
July 2, 2019
SRG conducted a benchmark study of the SK Telecom (SKT) 5G NR network in Seoul, South Korea. This report is critical to any organization wanting to understand the current capabilities of 5G NR operating in FR1 (sub 7.125 GHz)...
RAN#84 Standardization Update
June 10, 2019
Last week, we attended the RAN#84 Plenary in Newport Beach, CA. In this Signals Ahead report we provide our thoughts based on recent RAN Plenary activities and key decisions impacting the functionality and timeline of the 5G standard. That's Messed...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
May 6, 2019
SRG conducted a benchmark study of the Verizon Wireless 5G NR networks in Minneapolis and Chicago. Although data speeds are interesting, we focused our efforts on metrics that have far more implications on the long-term prospects for 5G NR,...
RAN #83 5G Standardization Update
March 28, 2019
Last week, we attended the RAN#83 Plenary in Shenzhen, China. In this Signals Ahead report we provide our thoughts based on recent RAN Plenary activities and key decisions impacting the functionality and timeline of the 5G standard. The Time 5G...
LET'S GO TO THE VIDEOTAPE...
March 14, 2019
SRG conducted its second independent benchmark study of LTE-Broadcast and how it compares with unicast delivery mechanisms. For this study, we focused primarily on the video MOS (Mean Opinion Score), which provides an objective quantification of the video quality. Highlights...
IT'S RAINING CATS AND CATS
February 19, 2019
SRG conducted what we believe is the first independent benchmark study of 3GPP-based IoT devices. For this study, we analyzed the power consumption / energy requirements of Cat M1 and Cat NB1 modules and devices operating under a wide...
RAN#82 5G Standardization Update
January 8, 2019
Last December, we attended the RAN#82 Plenary in Sorrento, Italy. In this Signals Ahead report we provide our final thoughts based on recent RAN Plenary activities and key decisions impacting the functionality and timeline of the 5G standard. Ongoing Release...
The Matrix
November 29, 2018
SRG conducted the first independent benchmark study of Massive MIMO. For this study, we tested in Dallas, Texas with the Sprint LTE TDD network (Band 41) by comparing the results of side-by-side 64T64R and 8T8R antenna systems. Highlights of the...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
October 22, 2018
SRG conducted the first independent benchmark study of the Verizon Wireless 5GTF commercial fixed wireless service. For this study, we tested in Houston,Texas, where the operator has deployed a 600 MHz radio channel (six,100 MHz channels) in the 28...
RAN#81 5G Standardization Update
September 25, 2018
SRG recently attended the RAN#81 Plenary, held in Gold Coast, Australia. 3GPP continues to work on Release 15, Release 16, and now it is doing some initial work on Release 17. While the "little things" that remain for Release...
RAN#80 5G Standardization Update
July 1, 2018
SRG recently attended the RAN#80 Plenary, held in La Jolla, California. Chennai, India. As we indicated in our recent Signals Flash, 3GPP signed off on the set of specifications which define Option 2. However, the real interest lies with...
Standing on our 5G Soapbox
May 21, 2018
Since 2010, SRG has been analyzing technology leadership during the standardization process, based on how frequently a company submits technical documents to the 3GPP standards body. Combined with our participation in 3GPP meetings since the start of the 5G...
RAN#79 5G Standardization Update
April 10, 2018
SRG recently attended the RAN#79 Plenary, held in Chennai, India. With the Option 3 NSA drop "finished" in December, it was time to move onto other items pertaining to both Release 15 as well as to Release 16. Most items...
5G: The Greatest Show on Earth!
February 21, 2018
SRG conducted what it believes is the first independent benchmark study of an operator's 5G network. For these tests, we used the Verizon Wireless 5GTF network in Houston, Texas where Samsung is the infrastructure supplier. Although the 5GTF specifications...
SRG Travels: It's a Small Cell World After All!
January 24, 2018
SRG conducted its third benchmark study of small cells. For this round, we turned our attention to LAA (Licensed Assisted Access) and the AT&T network in Indianapolis, Indiana where Ericsson is the infrastructure supplier. This trip marked the third...
RAN#78 5G Standardization Update
January 3, 2018
SRG recently attended the RAN#78 Plenary, held in Lisbon, Portugal. In addition to approving the set of specifications, which comprise the early drop of Release 15 (NSA Option 3 and eMBB only), the Plenary made several decisions or delayed...
To Delano and Beyond!
December 16, 2017
SRG conducted a benchmark study of HPUE (High Power User Equipment) with a Power Class 2 Power Amplifier (PA), to determine how it performs against an ordinary smartphone with a Power Class 3 PA. A Power Class 2 PA...
SRG Travels: It's a Small Cell World After All!
October 26, 2017
In this Signals Ahead report we provide results from our independent and in-depth analysis of LTE small cells, specifically LTE-FDD small cells that have been deployed as part of AT&T's 5G Evolution in Indianapolis, Indiana. We also include an...
RAN #77 5G Standardization Update
September 25, 2017
We recently attended the RAN #77 Plenary, held in Sapporo, Japan. In addition to following the events proceedings we took the time to do some VoLTE testing, given that two US operators have announced VoLTE roaming agreements with two...
SRG Travels: It's a Small Cell World After All
August 14, 2017
In this Signals Ahead report we provide results from our independent and in-depth analysis of LTE small cells, specifically mini-macro cell sites and the Sprint "Magic Box," which is essentially a repeater-like solution that leverages a B41 radio channel...
RAN #76 5G Standardization Update
June 26, 2017
We recently attended the RAN #76 Plenary, held in West Palm Beach, Florida. Following on the heels of RAN #75, where 5G moved from a study item to a work item, things were far more subdued at this plenary....
Keeping Up With The Jetsons
May 12, 2017
In this Signals Ahead report we provide results from the industry's first independent and in-depth analysis of LTE and its ability to provide command and control (C2) for drones. For this study, we tested the four major US mobile...
646.2 Degrees of Freedom
April 19, 2017
In this Signals Ahead report we provide the industry's first independent and indepth analysis of 4CCA and Gigabit LTE. For this study we used the Telstra network in Sydney, Australia. Key Highlights from this Study Our Thanks. This study could not...
RAN#75 5G Standardization Update
March 16, 2017
We recently attended the RAN #75 Plenary, held in Dubrovnik, Croatia. At this plenary, 5G finally transitioned from being a study item to a work item, so now the real work begins. As part of our series of reports...
Video Killed the Radio Star...and then in Release 9, 3GPP Created eMBMS
February 16, 2017
In this Signals Ahead report we provide results from the industry's first and only independent benchmark study of unicast and eMBMS, including both video performance and the impact on the network. For this study we used the Telstra commercial...
Finding MIMO
January 9, 2017
In this Signals Ahead report we provide the results from the industry's first and only independent performance analysis of 4x4 MIMO. For this study we used the T-Mobile commercial LTE network in the Minneapolis market where Nokia is the...
The Politics of 5G Standardization
November 30, 2016
We recently attended the RAN working group meetings which were jointly held, along with the SA2 working group, in Reno, NV. As part of our series of reports on the 5G standardization process, we provide an update on the...
5G Standardization Update
October 28, 2016
We recently attended the RAN #73 Plenary, held in New Orleans. As part of our series of reports on the 5G standardization process, we provide an update on the recent activities pertaining to both the new air interface as...
The Hunt for Uplink 64-QAM
September 30, 2016
In this Signals Ahead report we provide the results from the industry's first and only independent performance analysis of two critical LTE features which can meaningfully impact the uplink performance of an LTE network. For this study we used...
Behind the VoLTE Curtain, Part 6
July 29, 2016
In this Signals Ahead report we provide part two of our two-part study of the new EVS voice codec and how it compares with AMR-WB. For this independent study, we purchased four commercial smartphones (LG G5) and used the...
5G Standardization Update
June 30, 2016
Earlier this month we attended the RAN#72 Plenary, held in Busan, South Korea. As part of our series of reports on the 5G standardization process, we provide an update on the recent activities pertaining to both the new air...
Behind the VoLTE Curtain, Part 5
June 8, 2016
In this Signals Ahead report we continue our multi-part series on VoLTE-related topics by providing the results of the industry's first lab-based independent benchmark study of the EVS voice codec and how it compares with AMR. This study is...
How Fast is that Kangaroo in the Window?
May 2, 2016
In this Signals Ahead report we provide the results of the industry's first truly independent benchmark study of how an LTE-Advanced (Rel 12) network with 256 QAM performs. This study was conducted using Telstra's 600 Mbps LTE network in...
Potato, Potahto, Tomato, Tomahto, Let's Call the Whole Thing 5G-NR
April 5, 2016
Earlier this month we attended the RAN#71 Plenary, held in Gothenburg, Sweden. As part of our series of reports on the 5G standardization process, we provide an update on the recent activities pertaining to both the new air interface...
FDD + TDD Carrier Aggregation
March 9, 2016
We recently completed a drive test of the Optus LTE network in Melbourne, Australia, which supports LTE FDD and LTE TDD (x2) carrier aggregation. The objective of this study was to determine the technical maturity of the LTE feature...
The Murky Underworld of IoT
January 30, 2016
While there is a lot of industry interest in IoT air interfaces and their individual merits, there is also more than a fair amount of uncertainty and unknowns regarding these technologies and what they can and cannot do, both...
All Quiet on the 5G Front
January 3, 2016
Just recently we returned from the 3GPP RAN#70 Plenary, which was held it Sitges, Spain. Conventional wisdom suggests that the 5G standard is baked and resting on a hot plate, given all of the operator claims about forthcoming trials,...
Get SMART[ER]
December 9, 2015
Unlike what occurred during the previous introductions of a new family of technologies, 3GPP has leveraged the work of the NGMN Alliance and other entities to define the Use Cases for 5G. Although the Use Cases are still in...
Chips and Salsa XX - When Iconic Meets Anechoic, Part II
October 30, 2015
In our 20th Chips and Salsa, we collaborated closely with Spirent Communications, PCTEST, and EMT Labs, to conduct arguably the industry's most extensive independent OTA MIMO performance testing of leading smartphones - from the Apple iPhone to the ZTE Nubia....
Looking Further Ahead to 5.5G
October 7, 2015
Updates on the 3GPP 5G RAN standardization efforts
Behind the VoLTE Curtain, Pt. 4
August 10, 2015
We conducted an independent performance analysis of T-Mobile's VoWi-Fi service. Spirent Communications provided us with its Nomad User Experience Analytics System to conduct the call quality tests. We used Accuver Americas XCAL-M drive test solution and XCAP post processing...
Eight is Enough
May 28, 2015
Analysis of LTE TDD with carrier aggregation, 8-branch antennas and TM8
Chips and Salsa XIX: Carrier Aggregation Chipset Benchmark Study
May 19, 2015
Leveraging the Spirent 8100 test platform as well as engineering support, SRG conducted the industry's first independent benchmark study of LTE-A chipsets with support for 10 MHz + 10 MHz carrier aggregation.
LTE-Advanced Flexes Its Muscles
May 1, 2015
By leveraging a suite of test solutions from Accuver, we conducted the industry's first independent analysis of a commercial LTE-Advanced network that supported three separate radio carriers (carrier aggregation).
IR.94 Video Telephony Benchmark Study
March 31, 2015
Performance analysis of IR.94 and eight other OTT video chat applications
Video Killed the Radio Star [Video over LTE Performance Benchmark Study]
February 9, 2015
Video performance analysis of seven popular smartphones
VoLTE Benchmark Study, Part 2
January 12, 2015
Smartphone / VoLTE client benchmark study
Connect 4 - VoLTE Roaming
October 14, 2014
VoLTE roaming network architecture implications and challenges
Testing the Galaxy S5 LTE-A Cat 6 Smartphone in a Distant Place Far, Far Away
September 9, 2014
Benchmark study of SK Telecom's Cat 6 (225 Mbps) network
Behind the VoLTE Curtain, Part One
August 7, 2014
Benchmark study of AT&T's VoLTE service
By the Light of the Silvery Moon
July 8, 2014
4x2 CL-MIMO Benchmark Study
LTE and the Public Safety Communications Paradigm Shift
May 29, 2014
Opportunities and challenges for Public Safety Communications
Chips and Salsa XVIII: The Cat 4 is Out of the Bag
May 7, 2014
Results from the latest LTE FDD chipset benchmark study
Deep in the Bowels of LTE Network Performance
April 3, 2014
LTE Performance involving 5 US operators and their Infrastructure Suppliers
eMBMS/LTE Broadcast
February 12, 2014
LTE Broadcast opportunities and challenges
Chips and Salsa XVII - Smartphone OTA Performance Benchmark Study
January 16, 2014
OTA performance benchmark study of leading smartphones
SDN and NFV
November 27, 2013
An examination of SDN and NFV although their implications
LTE Advanced Carrier Aggregation Network Performance Study
October 23, 2013
Analysis of LTE Advanced Carrier Aggregation
124.2 GB in a LTE TDD network - been there, done that, bought the [Hello Kitty] t-shirt
September 23, 2013
LTE TDD and LTE FDD network benchmark study
Fifty Shades of MIMO
August 12, 2013
Quantifying the impact of MIMO in commercial LTE networks
What's the PSC, Kenneth?
May 28, 2013
Interference cancellation in a 3G network
Everything Under the SON
April 25, 2013
Like most industry buzzwords, Self-optimizing Networks (SON) means different things to different people. Regardless of what technically classifies as SON, we firmly believe that SON will play an extremely critical role in the future evolution of wireless networks. In...
Chips and Salsa XVI
February 25, 2013
LTE baseband chipset benchmark study
On the Inside, Looking Out
January 22, 2013
In-building performance study of LTE networks in four frequency bands
LTE Band 7 versus LTE Band 4 - GAME ON!
December 5, 2012
In order for a dual-band strategy to be successful it needs to meet several criteria. In addition to providing a massive amount of capacity and delivering the maximum throughput that LTE supports, the higher frequency needs to provide at...
M2M
November 6, 2012
Technology and business implications for the M2M market opportunity
Lost and Found
October 15, 2012
A-GNSS platform and navigation application test results
Chips and Salsa XV: Disparately Seeking Satellites
September 13, 2012
In order to pull off this highly-differentiated study we collaborated with Spirent Communications to get access to their widely-regarded 8100 Location Technology platform and engineering support in order to obtain highly objective results. In total, we include results for...
The B Side of LTE
August 20, 2012
A look at the proposed features for 3GPP Release 12 and beyond
Mobile Core Network 2.0
July 2, 2012
A technical analysis of the various ways in which the EPC will evolve to support the needs of operators
LTE World Summit Recap: Debbie Downer Does Barcelona
June 11, 2012
A recap and analysis of the LTE World Summit 2012 event
Improve your [RF] Front-End in Seven Easy Steps!
May 23, 2012
RF Front-end issues due to the introduction of LTE
LTE-Advanced and Coordinated Multi-Point (CoMP)
April 16, 2012
Detailed analysis of the various CoMP schemes from R11 and beyond
Cellular and Wi-Fi: a match made in heaven?
March 28, 2012
Technical discussion on the future integration of cellular and Wi-Fi networks
RCS - Reinventing Voice and Messaging
March 22, 2012
A look at RCS and its various implications
Expected Trends for MWC and 2012
February 24, 2012
Our view of expected trends at this year's MWC as well as for 2012
The Mother of all Network Benchmark Studies - Volume 4
January 31, 2012
HSPA+ and DC-HSDPA network and vendor-specific performance evaluation
The Mother of all Network Benchmark Tests - Volume 3
January 17, 2012
Detailed analysis of LTE performance by operator and by vendor
Chips And Salsa XIV: The World’s First LTE Chipset Performance
December 15, 2011
Performance benchmark study of commercially-available LTE chipsets
4G World Recap
November 8, 2011
Highlights and analysis from 4G World 2011
Quantifying the User Experience
October 19, 2011
Results and analysis of user experience metrics captured during testing in various next-generation wireless networks
The Mother of all Network Benchmark Tests
September 28, 2011
Network/technology performance analysis of the leading next-gen wireless technologies
90GB in AT&T’s 700MHZ LTE NETWORK
September 18, 2011
A first look at AT&T's LTE network in Houston, TX
Turning TD-LTE, I really think so
July 6, 2011
TD-LTE technology and market update from Shanghai, China.
United we Stand, Fragmented we Fail
June 8, 2011
We have been attending the LTE World Summit, which takes place every late spring in Europe, for three years running. At each subsequent event the number of operators has increased and the hot topics have evolved from the theoretical...
HetNet: When Big Cells and Small Cells Collide
May 16, 2011
Even under the most optimistic set of assumptions, we demonstrate that by 2020 at least 25% of the mobile data traffic in North America will have to be offloaded from the traditional macro network. Similar results are likely in...
Chips and Salsa XIII: Now Seasoned with Soy Sauce
April 26, 2011
This special edition Chips and Salsa report marks the fifth time that we have collaborated with Spirent Communications to conduct independent performance benchmark analysis of 3G chipsets. Thanks to our long-standing effort and reputation for doing these tests, not...
Signals way out Ahead: looking well beyond tomorrow and out into the distant future
February 14, 2011
In this issue we discuss likely technology and market trends that we see developing over the next year and throughout the remainder of the decade. Topics discussed include LTE data roaming, VoLTE, network optimization strategies, LTE-Advanced, 802.16m, HSPA+ market...
DC-HSDPA Drive Test Results - Part One
January 12, 2011
DC-HSDPA versus HSPA+ Drive Test Results
DC-HSDPA Drive Test Results - Part Two
January 12, 2011
Drive test results of DC-HSDPA versus HSPA+
Can you schedule me now?
December 20, 2010
With 2x10MHz or 2x20MHz of spectrum and an unloaded network, LTE can deliver incredibly high individual user data rates. At a minimum the data rates should be 8x higher than what is possible with HSPA+ (4x with MIMO) and...
A Perspective from LTE Americas and the GSMA Mobile Asia Congress
December 3, 2010
In this issue of Signals Ahead we provide and discuss various data points which stem from our participation and attendance at the LTE Americas event in Dallas, Texas and the GSMA Mobile Asia Congress (MAC) in Hong Kong....
2 x 20MHz of LTE and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
October 7, 2010
In early September we took to the streets of Stockholm and Gothenburg to conduct our second exhaustive independent performance analysis of an LTE network(s). Thanks to four dongles and 2x20MHz of LTE spectrum we transferred approximately 600GB of data...
Backhaul redux
August 10, 2010
When we did our first piece on next-generation backhaul back in 2007 operators were in the process of deploying HSPA and 1xEV-DO Rev A. And while they recognized that mobile data usage was growing, these operators had no idea...
Come Together, Right Now, Over LTE
July 6, 2010
In this issue of Signals Ahead we provide a market and technology update on LTE with a particular focus on the European market. This report stems from our participation at this year's LTE Global Summit, which was held in...
Mobile WiMAX Chipset Performance
June 7, 2010
In our twelfth Chips and Salsa edition we provide results from the industry's first independent benchmark of leading Mobile WiMAX chipsets. In collaboration with Agilent Technologies, who provided its Agilent E6651A Mobile WiMAX Test Set and the Agilent PXB...
VoLTE - a modern day Tower of Babel?
May 5, 2010
For the last 18 months or so there has been a lot of debate and controversy surrounding LTE, in particular how, or even if, the technology would support basic voice services. Part of the problem has to do with...
Smartphone Signaling
January 28, 2010
Over the last few years there has been a dramatic increase in the volume of mobile data traffic and this growth shows no signs of abating. In several well-publicized cases, operators have faced consumer backlash due to low call...
2010 Preview
January 4, 2010
Since we started publishing Signals Ahead back in 2004 we have dedicated our first issue of the new year to a recap of the prior year and our outlook for the coming year. Sometimes our predictions were spot on...
Service Assurance - ensuring next-generation networks
December 15, 2009
The role that service assurance has in an operator's network has evolved over the last decade and there are a number of new trends and participants that will continue to evolve service assurance into the next decade. The...